Effects of Sarbanes †Oxley Act Essay Sample free essay sample

With the section of Sarbanes †Oxley Act in 2002. companies including outside organizations and the outer listeners have to a great extent been influenced and troubled with newly discovered obligations under the demonstration. Organizations are presently liable for a figure of inclusion and liberation obligations ; though listeners need to assume additional obligations of rating of inside control frameworks among others obligations and compose a notion keeping up their independency unblemished. In this review it has been attempted to pass on forward the existent impacts of Sarbanes-Oxley follow up on these to a great extent influenced parties. viz. organizations. outer listeners and remote organizations. ‘The Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002 ( S-OX ) . gone in response to very promoted corporate soils. requires high degrees of answerability from organizations and their senior administrators to check the strategies. system and processs behind each company’s monetary examinations. furthermore, every worry operations’ ( Craiq Rhinehart )1 Sarbanes Oxley Act is pulled in to all organizations. regardless of whether little or large on the off chance that they Further there are sure explicit commissariats that are material simply to recorded organizations. We will compose a custom exposition test on Impacts of Sarbanes †Oxley Act Essay Sample or then again any comparable point explicitly for you Don't WasteYour Time Recruit WRITER Just 13.90/page The significant issues that are controlled under the demonstration and effect the organizations straight are examined and point by point as under: â€Å"The SEC guidelines necessitate that an organization records an investigation yearly on its inside control frameworks and such examination contains the undermentioned segment: CEO and CFO need to take a bunch of obligation into the working of the organization. They should area that non just they read the financial explanations yet adjacent to investigated the explanations that are non misleading. The essential point of SOX is to elevate investors’ confirmation with particular notice to financial explanations introduced by the enterprises. So as to instill such confirmation. a natural structure called ‘Public Companies Accounting Oversight Board’ ( PCAOB ) has been built up under the demonstration. to administer the monetary proclamation review of publically exchanged organizations. The idea is to set up high examining standards in the state. The major stairss and mandates under SOX through PCAOB in this regard are portrayed and examined as under: Accounting. planning and execution of monetary data frameworks. evaluation or rating administrations. inner examining. actuarial maps. contributing guide or protections firm maps. legitimate or master administrations non identified with reviews. also, some other administrations banned by the board. Truth be told outer listeners are as of now non permitted by the expert natural structures from executing such administrations for the review customers ; and such persistent mandates of the board is an endeavor to set thorough authority over the exercises of outside listeners. The idea is to do listeners autonomous truth be told and in visual viewpoint. Sarbanes Oxley has put the effectiveness and effectivity of investigating apparatuses to an existent preliminary. The full evaluating system of making a decision about the adequacy inner control requires a total review and fix so as to compose a valid and only slant on the issues raised under Sox. Donald K. MacConnell Jr. furthermore, Georgey Y. Banks4in their article ‘The Sarbanes-Oxley will adjust the review process’ area that â€Å"internal control liberation commissariats force significant obligations both on heading and listeners. The previous will hold to take responsibility for strategy of putting. archiving and estimating significant controls. each piece great as discovering which areas or concern units to quantify. For listeners. providing an estimation on the effectivity of an entity’s inward controls is a significant fight. † Further the article proposes that â€Å"In making the investigation the listener must be after the fight to For outside organizations recorded in the US the first day of the long stretch of enlisting the similarity of July 15Thursday2005 was reached out to July 15Thursday2006 predominantly in light of the fact that congruities for Sarbanes Oxley required clearing construction of the frameworks all through US. This was non simply cut eating up yet a sort of awakening require those remote organizations that are non used to such thorough congruities. Congruity a beyond a reasonable doubt won issue For remote organizations congruity with the commissariats of Sarbanes Oxley Act is a beyond all doubt won issue. â€Å"Financial ; course consultancy Parson Consulting gauges that following with Sarbanes Oxley would be the 70 British headquartered concerns remembered for their investigation a total of $ 860 million. Another investigation of corporate board individuals directed by official chase house Korn/Ferry International gauges that following would be the US organizations overviewed a standard of $ 5. 1 million. † ( Beth Carney )3Seriously after with Sarbanes Oxley is a truly won individual businesss for outside organizations. Mass migration of Foreign organizations The quick response of Sarbanes Oxley similarities on remote organizations is that those organizations do non mean remain recorded in Unites States. There is a sort of hegira of outside organizations. For a long clasp remote organizations would go to the United States for the renown of being recorded and of having the option to guarantee that they had the option to run into the most noteworthy disclosure measure known to mankind. Be that as it may, presently similarities like Sarbanes Oxley have put interferences to such postings as those organizations do non intend to open their ineptitudes to run into the beyond all doubt won congruities and face the risk of securing delisted. Struggle with other countries’ guidelines and statutes CEOs are required to vouch. to a degree. for reality of financial proclamations. Outside organizations locate no such utilization in their states. Organizations in different states put an explanation that as US Torahs have lost religion in bookkeeping calling. they are go throughing the vaulting pony to CEOs to reconfirm reality of financial articulations. This is really unsatisfactory to them as it is non fundamental that all CEOs are bookkeeping specialists themselves. This is essentially a moving of obligations. What will go on in the event that US Torahs begin fring religion in CEOs after some mishappening like Enron. Remote organizations find sox commissariats legitimately unfit to keep up on working in US. Issues with essential law of review commission There is no portrayals of representatives in the review commissions. what's more, development of review commission completely desolate representatives of organization. Financial proclamations are the outcomes of executings of management’s mandates to representatives. who truly perform to achieve the outcomes. Shockingly such an of import bunch does non happen a topographic point in review commission. Remote organizations feel that such a demonstration is non just and their dorsum place segments decay to be segment such undemocratic development of review commissions. Notices 1Craiq Rhinehart. Email Management and Sarbanes Oxley Compliance. Sarbanes-Oxley Compliance Journal. June 8. 2006. hypertext move convention:/www. sox. com/highlight/article. cfm? articleID=913 2Michael Ramos. Area 404 congruity in the Annual Report. Diary of Accountancy on the web. October 2004. hypertext move convention:/www. aicpa. organization/bars/jofa/oct2004/ramos. htm 3Beth Carney. Outside Outfits lament Sarbanes-Oxley. Business Week. December 2004. hypertext move convention:/www. businessweek. com/bwdaily/dnflash/dec2004/nf20041215_9306_db016. htm 4Donald K. MacConnell r. what's more, Georgey Y. Banks. How Sarbanes-Oxley will modify the review system. Diary of Accountancy on the web. September 2003. hypertext move convention:/www. aicpa. organization/bars/jofa/sep2003/mcconn. htm

Religious Journey Essay

The religion that I was raised is Baptist. I have heard that southern Baptists are extremely exacting yet I didn't ever need to do anything severe. My folks took me to chapel when I was more youthful however after about the age of 10 I seldom went once more. They got separated and it was extremely difficult for my mother to raise us and work constantly, so I surmise church departed for good. Anyway I have consistently trusted in God and I attempt to consistently make the best decision. I implore around evening time, however I despite everything don't go to chapel despite the fact that I might want to. For some time I analyzed religion to an extreme and I addressed on the off chance that he was genuine, yet after the accounts I’ve knew about individuals passing on and being resuscitated they state they went to paradise. This made me a solid devotee and that is the reason I appeal to God for my family and everything else. On the off chance that I had not gone to chapel during my parents’ separate from it would have been much harder for me to comprehend and overcome it. It was an exceptionally terrible separation and the guardianship fight endured two long years. Going to chapel helped me comprehend as well as it gave me something more grounded to put stock in. The separation was exceptionally hard on me. The religion that I practice currently is simply being a Christian. I don't generally have the foggiest idea about the contrast among Baptist and Christianity. I simply realize that I have faith in God and attempt to carry on with my life the correct way so one day I can go to paradise ideally. I generally concede my wrongdoings and request absolution. I petition God for my loved ones now and then the entire world. It causes me to feel better since it is an option that could be greater than me. I truly feel like now and then God will test us, however he generally appears to improve it. I would state that religion and having faith in God has made me a more grounded and more joyful individual. I couldn’t envision not putting stock in anything I realize that life would be much harder. The explanation I chose to be a Christian rather than Baptist is on the grounds that I don't have a clue about the distinction for one, yet I additionally need the opportunity to put stock in God the manner in which I need to. I feel like Christianity gives you more opportunity to put stock in God your own particular manner. I don't go to chapel, yet that’s not the point. Being a Christian just felt like the correct approach throughout everyday life.

CPW

CPW I know youve had a lot on your mind this past week, so I understand if youve forgotten that CPW is less than 3 weeks away! More importantly, did you remember that the registration deadline is this Thursday, March 25th? I feel there should be a dramatic chord (or small mammal) to drive that point home. If the W3C werent meeting down the hall Id even be tempted to break out the blink tag. CPW is an enormous event. Its natural that you or your parents might still have some questions. This is my first CPW, too, and I can tell you that the sheer quantity of options is daunting (in a good way). Luckily the level of enthusiasm all over campus is equally impressive, and you have an entire Admissions office here to help with any last minute items. Im sure youve been to the CPW website. Did you notice the new schedule search feature? Between that and the iPhone app we hope to launch soon, you should have ample tools to start planning your weekend. And parents, I hope youve gotten the message that theres no shortage of activities and information for you at CPW, too. Heck, we have a whole page just for you, plus at last count there were 171 parent-friendly events in the schedule. If a visit to the site or a call/email to us cant unravel the mystery of CPW, the only thing left to do is go to the source: MITs CPW gurus Lauren and Jennifer. Theyll be webcasting live tomorrow night beginning at 10pm EDT; check your email for details (or email [emailprotected] / comment below with your email and well get in touch after we verify your admission status). Well be using backchan.nl, a creation of MITs Media Lab, to let you ask questions, or vote up/down others questions, beginning at 9:30 and continuing live during the webcast. Even if you think you have all the answers, why not stop by and get to know your fellow classmates? So please consider your memory jogged: Registration deadline THIS THURSDAY CPW Website goodies CPW webcast TOMORROW (Tuesday) at 10pm EDT I cant wait to see you at CPW! CPW I know youve had a lot on your mind this past week, so I understand if youve forgotten that CPW is less than 3 weeks away! More importantly, did you remember that the registration deadline is this Thursday, March 25th? I feel there should be a dramatic chord (or small mammal) to drive that point home. If the W3C werent meeting down the hall Id even be tempted to break out the blink tag. CPW is an enormous event. Its natural that you or your parents might still have some questions. This is my first CPW, too, and I can tell you that the sheer quantity of options is daunting (in a good way). Luckily the level of enthusiasm all over campus is equally impressive, and you have an entire Admissions office here to help with any last minute items. Im sure youve been to the CPW website. Did you notice the new schedule search feature? Between that and the iPhone app we hope to launch soon, you should have ample tools to start planning your weekend. And parents, I hope youve gotten the message that theres no shortage of activities and information for you at CPW, too. Heck, we have a whole page just for you, plus at last count there were 171 parent-friendly events in the schedule. If a visit to the site or a call/email to us cant unravel the mystery of CPW, the only thing left to do is go to the source: MITs CPW gurus Lauren and Jennifer. Theyll be webcasting live tomorrow night beginning at 10pm EDT; check your email for details (or email [emailprotected] / comment below with your email and well get in touch after we verify your admission status). Well be using backchan.nl, a creation of MITs Media Lab, to let you ask questions, or vote up/down others questions, beginning at 9:30 and continuing live during the webcast. Even if you think you have all the answers, why not stop by and get to know your fellow classmates? So please consider your memory jogged: Registration deadline THIS THURSDAY CPW Website goodies CPW webcast TOMORROW (Tuesday) at 10pm EDT I cant wait to see you at CPW!

Mercury Fulminate and Crystal Meth in Breaking Bad

Episode 6 of AMCs Breaking Bad has a scene where our hero, Walt, passes a plastic bag of mercury fulminate off as crystal meth. Why mercury fulminate? I guess there arent many easy-to-make explosives that look like crystal meth. The thing is... I dont think fulminate of mercury looks like it was portrayed in the tv show.Mercury fulminate [or fulminate of mercury, Hg(ONC)2] was first prepared in 1800 by Edward Charles Howard. It is an explosive that mainly was used in favor of flints to ignite black powder in a firearm. Its pretty easy to make... the synthesis involves dissolving mercury in nitric acid and adding ethanol to the solution. However, you end up precipitating a white to grayish-brown powder (depending on purity) like what you see in this photo and not big chunks of glassy crystals, as seen in Breaking Bad.Although mercury fulminate is easy to prepare, you dont want to try it. The explosive is highly sensitive to just about everything... shock, sparks, flame, friction, and heat. I dont think Walt could have been so casual handling a bag of it without having a little accident. If you dont blow yourself up with the compound, you could gas yourself with fumes from the synthesis (reaction should be done outdoors or inside a fume hood). Then there is the product... mercury compounds are toxic. The mercury doesnt magically disappear when the compound explodes.The episode got me wondering. If you were in charge of props for a tv show and were asked to come up with crystal meth, what would you use? Im going to guess using the illegal drug would not be an option. I am betting they used rock candy. What do you think?Breaking Bad - Elements in the Body | Breaking Bad - Hydrofluoric AcidPhoto:

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Motivation in Supervision Free Essays

The term motivation is derived from the Latin verb movere (to move). The idea of movement is reflected in such commonsense ideas about motivation as something that gets us going, keeps us moving, and helps us get jobs done. Conversely, we know we are not motivated when we cannot seem to get out of bed or off the sofa. We will write a custom essay sample on Motivation in Supervision or any similar topic only for you Order Now Despite these commonly held ideas, definitions of motivation are numerous and varied, and there is much disagreement over the precise nature of motivation. Although there is disagreement about the precise nature of motivation, this paper offer a general definition of motivation that is consistent with the cognitive focus of this paper on learners’ thoughts and beliefs and hat captures the elements considered by most researchers and practitioners to be central to motivation. Motivation is the process whereby goal-directed activity is instigated and sustained. Motivation involves goals that provide impetus for and direction to action. Cognitive views of motivation are united in their emphasis on the importance of goals. Goals may not be well formulated and may change with experience, but the point is that individuals have something in mind that they are trying to attain (or avoid). Motivation requires activity—physical or mental. Physical activity entails effort, persistence, and other overt actions. Mental activity includes such cognitive actions as planning, rehearsing, organizing, monitoring, making decisions, solving problems, and assessing progress. The activities that students engage in are geared toward attaining their goals. Finally, we highlight that motivated activity is both instigated and sustained. Starting toward a goal is important and often difficult because it involves making a commitment to change and taking the first step. But motivational processes are critically important to sustain action. Many major goals are long-term, for example, earning a college degree, obtaining a good job, and saving money for retirement. Much of what we know about motivational processes comes from studying how people respond to the difficulties, problems, failures, and setbacks they encounter as they pursue goals over time. II. Discussion A. Motivation Research paradigms Researchers employ different research paradigms to investigate motivational processes. For example, there is a distinction between correlational and experimental studies. Correlational research deals with relations that exist between variables. A researcher may hypothesize that motivation is positively correlated with (related to) perceived capabilities such that the more confidence individuals have in their learning abilities, the higher is their motivation. To test this relation, the researcher might measure individuals’ perceived capabilities and their motivation as demonstrated on a task. The researcher could statistically correlate the perceived capability and motivation scores to determine the nature and strength of the relation. Pintrich and De Groot (2000a) conducted a correlational study that explored the relations among motivational, cognitive, and academic performance variables. The motivational beliefs component assessed three factors: self-efficacy, (perceptions of capabilities), intrinsic value (importance), and test anxiety. The learning strategies component comprised two factors: cognitive strategy use and self-regulation. Correlations among intrinsic value, self-efficacy, strategy use, and self-regulation were positive and significant. Test anxiety showed a significant, negative correlation with self-efficacy; correlations of test anxiety with all other variables were nonsignificant.The researchers also computed correlations among these five variables and measures of academic performance: in-class seatwork and homework, quizzes and tests, essays and reports, grades. Intrinsic value, self-efficacy, and self-regulation correlated positively with academic measures except performance measures; strategy use correlated positively with all academic performance measures; strategy use correlated positively with academic measures except   for seatwork (nonsignificant); test anxiety was negatively correlated with grades and quiz/test scores. This study was correlational because Pintrich and De Groot looked at the existing relations among variables and did not attempt to alter them. The results show that motivational variables relate in important ways to cognitive factors contributing to classroom success (strategy use-self-regulation) and to measures of academic performance. In an experimental study, the researcher actually alters one or more variables and determines the effects on other variables. A researcher interested in the effects of perceived capabilities could conduct an experimental study by systematically altering these perceptions and gauging the effect on individual motivation. For example, the researcher might have a teacher systematically praise love-achieving individuals to raise their perceptions of capabilities and determine if this increase enhances motivation. Schunk (2002) conducted an experimental study that investigated how forms of effort attributional feedback influenced individuals’ achievement outcomes during learning. Individuals in lower years who lacked subtraction skills received instruction and practice opportunities over sessions. While individuals solved problems individually, an adult proctor periodically walked up to each individual and asked on what page in the instructional packet he or she was working. For some individuals (prior attribution), after they replied with the page number; the proctor linked their progress with effort by remarking, â€Å"You’ve been working hard.† For others (future attribution, the proctor stressed the value of future effort by stating, â€Å"You need to work hard.† Those in third condition (monitoring) were queried but the proctor departed without comment after the individual replied. Individuals in a fourth (control) condition were not monitored. This study was an experiment because Schunk altered the type of feedback individuals received and looked to see whether differential effects on achievement outcomes resulted. Schunk hypothesized, that prior attribution would be the most effective because it supports individuals’ perceptions of their progress in acquiring skills and conveys that they can continue to improve through effort. This prediction was supported. Prior-attribution individuals outperformed individuals in the other conditions on measures of self-efficacy and subtraction skill. Prior-attribution individuals also displayed higher motivation than did future-attribution and control individuals as assessed by the amount of problem solving during the independent practice portions of the sessions. The results of this study suggest that it is better to link individuals’ past success to effort than to stress the future benefits of hard work. Each type of research has advantages and disadvantages. Correlational research helps clarify relations among variables. Correlational findings often suggest directions for experimental research. The positive correlation obtained by Pintrich and De Groot between intrinsic value and academic performance suggests further research exploring whether increasing intrinsic value leads to higher achievement. A disadvantage of correlational research is that it cannot identify cause and effect. The positive correlation between intrinsic value and academic performance could mean that (a) intrinsic value affects academic performance, (b) academic performance influences intrinsic value, (c) intrinsic value and academic performance are each influenced by other, unmeasured variables (e.g., home factors). Experimental research can clarify cause-effect relations. By systematically varying type of feedback and eliminating other variables as potential causes, Schunk (2002) could specify how changes in attributional feedback affect achievement outcomes. Clarifying causal relations helps us understand the nature of motivation. At the same time, experimental research is often narrow is scope. Researchers typically vary only a few variables and try to hold all others constant, which is difficult to do and somewhat unrealistic. B. Qualitative/Interpretative Research In recent years, another type of paradigm has gained currency among researchers. The theories and methods used are referred to various labels, including qualitative, ethnographic, participant observation, phenomenological, constructivist, and interpretative (Erickson, 2003).   These approaches differ from one another characterized by intensive study, descriptions of events, and interpretation of meanings. Such a research model is not new in the social sciences, but only recently has it been applied increasingly in supervision. Interpretative research is especially useful when researchers are interested in the structure of events rather than their overall distributions, when the meanings and perspectives of individuals are important, when actual experiments are impractical or unethical, and when there is a desire to search for new potential causal linkages that have not been unearthed by experimental methods, (Erickson, 2003). Moreover, qualitative/interpretive research yields rich sources of data that are much more intensive and thorough than those typically obtained in correlational or experimental research. This research paradigm also has the potential of raising new questions and new slants on old questions that often are missed by traditional methods. Because this approach is not concerned with the aggregation of usable knowledge for teaching practice, it is not a means for providing practical answers to teaching problems (Shulman, 2004). Studies usually are conducted with few participants, which raise the issue of whether findings are reliable and representative of the population being studied. Another concern is that if researchers do not attempt to interpret data in light of a theoretical framework, findings may not seem linked and interpretation may prove difficult. Nonetheless, as a research model, this tradition has provided much valuable data in the study of motivation, and its influence will continue to grow. III. Conclusion In conclusion and in addition to the differences among experimental, correlational, and qualitative research, another distinction exists between laboratory studies conducted in controlled settings and field studies conducted where was conducted in laboratories using such infrahuman species as cats, dogs, and rats. Such research was appropriate given the influence of conditioning theories which contended that common processes occurred in animals and humans and that controlled experiments could help isolate these processes and eliminate extraneous influences. Motivation research also has employed human subjects in controlled laboratory environments. With the increasing emphasis on schooling and other applied settings, however; most current research is conducted in field settings. The Pintrich and De Groot (2000a), and Schunk (2002) studies are examples of field studies. Reference: 1.Pintrich, P.R. De Groot, E. (2000a). Individual differences in early adolescents’ motivation and self-regulated learning. Journal of early Adolescence, 14, 139-161. 2.Schunk, D.H. (2002). Extended attributional feedback: Sequence effects during remedial reading instruction. Journal of Early Adolescence, 6, 55-66. 3.Erickson, F. (2003). Qualitative methods in research on supervision. In M.C. Wittrock (ED.), Handbook research on supervision (3rd ed., pp. 119-161). New York: Macmillan. 4.Shulman, L.S. (2004).   Paradigms and research programs in the study of teachings: A contemporary perspective. In M.C. Wittrock (ED.) Handbook of research on supervision (3rd) ed., pp. 3-36). New York: Macmillan. How to cite Motivation in Supervision, Essay examples

Short Stories of Faulkner free essay sample

Role of the past, the Old South slavery in A Rose for Emily, Barn Burning That Evening Sun. William Faulkner was one of the leading novelists of this century, and he drew upon his own town of Oxford, Mississippi for his stories, his setting, and his themes. The Civil War was the defining moment in history for the South, and the fact that the South had lived by slavery before that was an indictment of the old families of the South and a reason for the people of the new South to atone. The heavy hand of the past can be seen as having a hold on the present in stories such as That Evening Sun, Barn Burning, and A Rose for Emily, and in each case Faulkner infuses the story with a political and social structure related to the slave-owning past of the South and showing the effect of that past on the present. We will write a custom essay sample on Short Stories of Faulkner or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Jean-Paul Sartre noted the way Faulkner treated past and present: The past here gains a surrealistic quality; its outline..

Anatomical Directional Terms and Body Planes

Anatomical Directional Terms and Body Planes Anatomical directional terms are like the directions on a compass rose of a map. Like the directions, North, South, East and West, they can be used to describe the locations of structures in relation to other structures or locations in the body. This is particularly useful when studying anatomy as it provides a common method of communication that helps to avoid confusion when identifying structures. Also as with a compass rose, each directional term often has a counterpart with converse or opposite meaning. These terms are very useful when describing the locations of structures to be studied in dissections. Anatomical directional terms can also be applied to the planes of the body. Body planes are used to describe specific sections or regions of the body. Below are examples of some commonly used anatomical directional terms and planes of the body. Anatomical Directional Terms Anterior: In front of, frontPosterior: After, behind, following, toward the rearDistal: Away from, farther from the originProximal: Near, closer to the originDorsal: Near the upper surface, toward the backVentral: Toward the bottom, toward the bellySuperior: Above, overInferior: Below, underLateral: Toward the side, away from the mid-lineMedial: Toward the mid-line, middle, away from the sideRostral: Toward the frontCaudal: Toward the back, toward the tailBilateral: Involving both sides of the bodyUnilateral: Involving one side of the bodyIpsilateral: On the same side of the bodyContralateral: On opposite sides of the bodyParietal: Relating to a body cavity wallVisceral: Relating to organs within body cavitiesAxial: Around a central axisIntermediate: Between two structures Anatomical Body Planes Imagine a person standing in an upright position. Now imagine dissecting this person with imaginary vertical and horizontal planes. This is the best way to describe anatomical planes. Anatomical planes can be used to describe any body part or an entire body. (View a detailed body plane image.) Lateral Plane or Sagittal Plane: Imagine a vertical plane that runs through your body from front to back or back to front. This plane divides the body into right and left regions. Median or Midsagittal Plane: Sagittal plane that divides the body into equal right and left regions.Parasagittal Plane: Sagittal plane that divides the body into unequal right and left regions. Frontal Plane or Coronal Plane: Imagine a vertical plane that runs through the center of your body from side to side. This plane divides the body into front (anterior) and back (posterior) regions. Transverse Plane: Imagine a horizontal plane that runs through the midsection of your body. This plane divides the body into upper (superior) and lower (inferior) regions. Anatomical Terms: Examples Some anatomical structures contain anatomical terms in their names that help identify their position in relation to other body structures or divisions within the same structure. Some examples include the anterior and posterior pituitary, superior and inferior venae cavae, the median cerebral artery, and the axial skeleton. Affixes (word parts that are attached to base words) are also useful in describing the position of anatomical structures. These prefixes and suffixes give us hints about the locations of body structures. For example, the prefix (para-) means near or within. The parathyroid glands are located on the posterior side of the thyroid. The prefix epi- means upper or outermost. The epidermis is the outermost skin layer. The prefix (ad-) means near, next to, or toward. The adrenal glands are located atop the kidneys. Anatomical Terms: Resources Understanding anatomical directional terms and body planes will make it easier to study anatomy. It will help you to be able to visualize positional and spatial locations of structures and navigate directionally from one area to another. Another strategy that can be employed to help you visualize anatomical structures and their positions is to use study aids such as anatomy coloring books and flashcards. It may seem a bit juvenile, but coloring books and review cards actually help you to visually comprehend the information.

Introduction to Bipedal Locomotion

Introduction to Bipedal Locomotion Bipedal locomotion refers to walking on two legs in an upright position, and the only animal to do that all the time is the modern human. Our ancestor primates lived in trees and rarely set foot on the ground; our ancestor hominins moved out of those trees and lived primarily in the savannas. Walking upright all the time is thought to have been an evolutionary step forward if you will, and one of the hallmarks of being human. Scholars have often argued that walking erect is an enormous advantage. Walking erect improves communication, allows visual access to farther distances, and changes throwing behaviors. By walking upright, a hominins hands are freed to do all sorts of things, from holding babies to making stone tools to throwing weapons. American neuroscientist Robert Provine has argued that sustained voiced laughter, a trait which greatly facilitates social interactions, is only possible in bipeds because the respiration system is freed to do that in an upright position. Evidence for Bipedal Locomotion There are four main ways scholars have used to figure out whether a particular ancient hominin is primarily living in the trees or walking upright: ancient skeletal foot construction, other bone configurations above the foot, footprints of those hominins, and dietary evidence from stable isotopes. The best of these, of course, is foot construction: unfortunately, ancient ancestral bones are difficult to find under any circumstances, and foot bones are very rare indeed. Foot structures associated with bipedal locomotion include a plantar rigidity- flat foot- which means the sole stays flat from step to step. Secondly, hominins that walk on the earth generally have shorter toes than hominins who live in trees. Much of this was learned from the discovery of a nearly complete Ardipithecus ramidus, an ancestor of ours who apparently walked upright sometimes, some 4.4 million years ago. Skeletal constructions above the feet are slightly more common, and scholars have looked at the configurations of the spine, the tilt, and structure of the pelvis, and the way the femur fits into the pelvis to make assumptions about a hominins ability to walk upright. Footprints and Diet Footprints are also rare, but when they are found in a sequence, they hold evidence that reflects the gait, length of stride, and weight transfer during walking. Footprint sites include Laetoli in Tanzania (3.5-3.8 million years ago, probably Australopithecus afarensis; Ileret (1.5 million years ago) and GaJi10 in Kenya, both likely Homo erectus; the Devils Footprints in Italy, H. heidelbergensis about 345,000 years ago; and Langebaan Lagoon in South Africa, early modern humans, 117,000 years ago. Finally, a case has been made that diet infers environment: if a particular hominin ate a lot of grasses rather than fruit from trees, it is likely the hominin lived primarily in grassed savannas. That can be determined through stable isotope analysis. Earliest Bipedalism So far, the earliest known bipedal locomotor was Ardipithecus ramidus, who sometimes- but not always- walked on two legs 4.4 million years ago. Fulltime bipedalism is currently thought to have been achieved by Australopithecus, the type fossil of which is the famous Lucy, approximately 3.5 million years ago. Biologists have argued that foot and ankle bones changed when our primate ancestors came down from the trees, and that after that evolutionary step, we lost the facility to regularly climb trees without the aid of tools or support systems. However, a 2012 study by human evolutionary biologist Vivek Venkataraman and colleagues points out that there are some modern humans who do regularly and quite successfully climb tall trees, in pursuit of honey, fruit, and game. Climbing Trees and Bipedal Locomotion Venkataraman and his colleagues investigated behaviors and anatomical leg structures of two modern-day groups in Uganda: the Twa hunter-gatherers and Bakiga agriculturalists, who have coexisted in Uganda for several centuries. The scholars filmed the Twa climbing trees and used movie stills to capture and measure how much their feet flexed while tree-climbing. They found that although the bony structure of the feet is identical in both groups, there is a difference in the flexibility and length of soft tissue fibers in the feet of people who could climb trees with ease compared with those who cannot. The flexibility that allows people to climb trees only involves soft tissue, not the bones themselves. Venkataraman and colleagues caution that the foot and ankle construction of Australopithecus, for example, does not rule out tree-climbing, even though it does allow upright bipedal locomotion.   Sources Been, Ella, et al. Morphology and Function of the Lumbar Spine of the Kebara 2 Neandertal. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 142.4 (2010): 549-57. Print. Crompton, Robin H., et al. Human-Like External Function of the Foot, and Fully Upright Gait, Confirmed in the 3.66 Million Year Old Laetoli Hominin Footprints by Topographic Statistics, Experimental Footprint-Formation and Computer Simulation. Journal of The Royal Society Interface 9.69 (2012): 707-19. Print. DeSilva, Jeremy M., and Zachary J. Throckmorton. Lucys Flat Feet: The Relationship between the Ankle and Rearfoot Arching in Early Hominins. PLoS ONE 5.12 (2011): e14432. Print. Haeusler, Martin, Regula Schiess, and Thomas Boeni. New Vertebral and Rib Material Point to Modern Bauplan of the Nariokotome Homo Erectus Skeleton. Journal of Human Evolution 61.5 (2011): 575-82. Print. Harcourt-Smith, William E. H. Origin of Bipedal Locomotion. Handbook of Paleoanthropology. Eds. Henke, Winfried, and Ian Tattersall. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg, 2015. 1919-59. Print. Huseynov, Alik, et al. Developmental Evidence for Obstetric Adaptation of the Human Female Pelvis. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 113.19 (2016): 5227-32. Print. Lipfert, Susanne W., et al. A Model-Experiment Comparison of System Dynamics for Human Walking and Running. Journal of Theoretical Biology 292.Supplement C (2012): 11-17. Print. Mitteroecker, Philipp, and Barbara Fischer. Adult Pelvic Shape Change Is an Evolutionary Side Effect. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 113.26 (2016): E3596-E96. Print. Provine, Robert R. Laughter as an Approach to Vocal Evolution: The Bipedal Theory. Psychonomic Bulletin Review 24.1 (2017): 238-44. Print. Raichlen, David A., et al. Laetoli Footprints Preserve Earliest Direct Evidence of Human-Like Bipedal Biomechanics. PLoS ONE 5.3 (2010): e9769. Print. Venkataraman, Vivek V., Thomas S. Kraft, and Nathaniel J. Dominy. Tree Climbing and Human Evolution. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (2012). Print. Ward, Carol V., William H. Kimbel, and Donald C. Johanson. Complete Fourth Metatarsal Andarches in the Foot of Australopithecus Afarensis. Science 331 (2011): 750-53. Print. Winder, Isabelle C., et al. Complex Topography and Human Evolution: The Missing Link. Antiquity 87 (2013): 333-49. Print.

The Fashioned Body Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

The Fashioned Body - Essay Example The essay "The Fashioned Body" discusses the topic of Gender Identity and Social Norms. These include biological factors such as genetic constitution. Social factors also influence gender identity. This paper discusses how one set of social factors, namely social norms, influences a person's perception of being a man or a woman. In order to accomplish this task, backgrounds on gender identity and social norms will be discussed. Thereafter, specific aspects of social norms and how they affect gender identity will be examined. Sigmund Freud is largely held as the father of modern psychoanalysis. In 1905, Freud presented their theory of psychological development in a publication titled Tree Essays on the Theory of Sexuality. Freud claimed and purported to prove that prior to birth, infants do not distinguish between the sexes(Elgstrom, 2000). To them, both the father and the mother have the same reproductive organs and abilities. Based on this, Freud inferred that that originally, a per son is wired to be bisexual. They added that heterosexuality was the result of repression during infancy when gender identity becomes embedded in the infant. According to Freud, at this stage, the child experiences sexual fantasies for the parent of the opposite sex while developing hatred for the parent of the same sex. The problem with Freud is that they tried to explain everything in terms of sex and sexuality. For instance, they are on record for claiming that the reason a farmer engages in crop farming.

An Innovative premium brand in WestQue Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

An Innovative premium brand in WestQue - Essay Example This includes an overview of diverse categories of retail businesses in WestQue, purchasing behaviour of the people of Southampton who are frequent visitors of shopping centre, demand of retail products etc. Analysis of these areas will help to assess the need of a new business in this retail park and also viability of the new business will be discussed on the basis of market analysis of WestQue. Swot analysis of the new business will also be developed to analyse the internal factors of this business like strengths and weaknesses of the business with respect two main external factors like opportunities and threats. The new business also needs effective market campaign to make awareness of their products and services and even the presence of this business in the shopping centre. So, effective market campaign will also be recommended based on the market analysis. Overview of market profile for West Quay Shopping Centre Since the inauguration day, shoppers entered through the doors on 2 8th September, 2008, accessibility and availability of all common needs of visitors has been the main focus at WestQuay in Southampton. In only one decade, it has established itself as one of the largest and leading destination of best shopping experience of the consumers. This retail park has received more than 120 million visitors since the opening day. WestQue has huge retail space of 800000 square feet which consists of two departmental stores and around 100 shops including top most retail brands like Marks & Spencer, Joan Lewis, Schuh, Zara, Holister Co, Waterstones, Apple and many more popular domestic as well as international brands. This shopping centre is situated in centre of Southampton city. It has entrance on the high street named Above Bar Street on Portland terrace. Apart from accessibility of so many popular retail brands, another attractive feature of this retail park is its multi storey car parking. Another attractive feature of this retail hub is its use of geothe rmal energy which is application of high technology. The owners of this leading retail hub is Hammerson Plc, a 100 FTSE company which has been developing and managing retail destination or shopping centres for more than fifty years in Europe. WestQuay commits to welcome visitors cum consumers through divers accessibility and availability of retail goods. The root cause of growing attraction of the potential consumers towards this shopping centre is the capital and physical investment from major retail brands from domestic and international market. Quality of shopping experience has been increasing due to the comprehensive training program for the staffs. This retail hub has rewarded with clutch of awards for better shopping experience of the satisfied customers. WestQue runs through 70 directly employed staffs which include a large team for high security and better customer assistance. The objective of these training programs is to ensure quality advice, support and assistance for t he visitors during trading hours. A comprehensive shop mobility scheme is the main focus of facility and services at WestQue. This shop mobility scheme is operated through a unit located in the centre of this shopping mall. Electronic way findings systems for visually impaired people and induction loops throughout public mall areas and 32 open lifts around the building are the main features

Impacts of Commercial Pressures on Audit Performance

Impacts of Commercial Pressures on Audit Performance Given the commercial pressures  are Auditors doing a good job? Introduction For two decades the debate has raged regarding whether auditors are performing their tasks adequately, within the bounds of the commercial pressures they are under. In preparing this paper, we have studied current research and comment surrounding this issue. Our opinion is that, although there are areas of serious concern and issues that need to be addressed, generally the auditing profession is doing a good job. â€Å"The debacle of Enron has shaken core assumptions about auditors and auditing.† (Kay and Carsberg 2002). Following the collapse of Enron, and its auditor’s Andersen, the role, competency, quality and standards of auditors came under increasing scrutiny, resulting in a raft of headlines such as the one quoted. The call from Kay and Carsberg, and others, for national and international standard committees to be set up, was quickly responded to. The US Sarbanes-Oxley Act (2002) and UK Combined Code of Corporate Governance (2003), both of which imposed stringent conditions onto the audit process, were swiftly introduced. As a result, the profession, through the IFA[1] (2006) responded with a complete overhaul of standards. All these regulations and standards have been subject to constant revision since their inception. However, concerns still exist regarding auditor performance as recent attempts by the UK government to criminalize certain audit failures shows (Parliamentary Correspondent 2006). In the same article audit firms responded, stating such a move would be â€Å"both costly and ineffective†[2] and that the â€Å"proposed offence will inevitably lead to defensive auditing, which is not in the interests of the profession or clients.†[3] . The auditing process, particularly in respect of Plc’s[4] is a complex procedure. There is a significant amount of preparatory work to be undertaken prior to the audit itself, including an understanding of the client’s business, evaluation of the risk, and the costing and construction of the audit itself (Dassen et. al. 2004, ch.6). This will determine the depth, breath, and percentage of testing required, fulfilling their tasks and complying with the requirements of all the applicable regulations and codes. This process also includes reaching an agreement on the fees to be charged. The audit task is even more complex when the organisation involved is a multi-national or transnational corporation. In addition, auditing firms have to ensure that they, and all of the persons involved in the audit, when preparing the audit, need to take into account all modifications and improvements to IFA standards, Company Law and the Combined Codes (Grey and Manson 2004). To monitor audits standards the government set up the Audit Inspection Unit (2006). The task of this unit is to ensure audits have complied with all current regulations (see page 6 of the report). Their latest report covered the â€Å"big four† firms and, for first time, the next five largest auditing firms. Seventy-seven audits were reviewed, over a number of sizes and industry sectors (see Appendix 1). Although, in general terms, the report responded positively, concluding that auditing firms are maintaining a reasonably high standard, there were some concerns. They found that progress on previous recommendations had been slower than expected, although there were mitigating circumstances (see section 4.1.1, p.11). In addition there was some concern expressed regarding the audit documentation (section 4.4.7, p.21). However, in other areas, such as leadership and human resources (section 4.2), improvements had been seen. In their final analysis, only in three areas did the Uni t make further recommendations. Addressing the position from the government viewpoint, a report was commissioned by the FRC[5] (Oxera Consultancy Group 2006). This report concentrated on the availability of auditor choice to corporations, and the competitive aspect of the profession in general. Whilst agreeing with the Audit Reporting Unit’s conclusion that generally the audit profession was performing their tasks well, this report expressed concerns in other areas. These focused on the dominance of the major audit firms within Plc and international fields. The fear is this leads to lack of choice and has produced increases in fees that exceed inflation by a significant amount, as much as 11%. There was also recognition that, from a logistical and cost point of view, it was virtually impossible for other auditing firms to compete for this market. One of the resultant fears that most corporate management expressed, was the problem that would be caused if there was a consolidation from four to three firms, and the impact this would have on other accounting and financial services, as well as the audit choice. Conclusion Having studied all of the research, we would concur with the conclusion that in view of the commercial concerns, audit firms are generally performing a good job. However, in our opinion, there is a need to address the competitive issues surround audit firms in the cases of quoted company audits. We would recommend that the laws of competition should be applied to the audit industry to ensure the numbers of firms do not reduce still further, and that ways should be considered to enable other firms to compete successfully in this market. References Audit Inspection Unit (2006) 2005/6 Audit Quality Inspections. Financial Reporting Council. London. UK Dassen, R., Schilder, A., Wallage, P. and Hayes, R. (2004) Principles of Auditing: An Introduction to International Standards on Auditing. FT Prentice Hall. Gray, Iain and Manson, Stuart (2004). The Audit Process: Principles, Practice and Cases. Third edition. Thomson Learning. Handbook of International Auditing, Assurance, and Ethics Pronouncements. (2006). International Federation of Accountants. New York. Kay, John and Carsberg, Bryan (2002) Stiffening the auditors’ backbones. Financial Times. UK Oxera Consultancy Group (2006). Competition and choice in the UK audit market. Report prepared for Financial Reporting Council. London. Parliamentary Correspondent. (2006). Auditors may escape criminal sanctions. Accountancy Age, UK. Sarbanes-Oxley Act (2002) Retrieved 6 November 2006 from http://www.sarbanes-oxley-101.com/sarbanes-oxley-TOC.htm The Committee on Corporate Governance (2003). The Combined Code on Corporate Governance. Financial Reporting Council. London. Footnotes [1] International Federation of Accountants [2] Baroness Noakes, a former KMPG partner [3] An Ernst Young spokesman [4] Public Limited Companies [5] Financial Reporting Council

Anthropology Essays – Australopithecines and Homos

Australopithecines and HomosSection 1 4. ( a & A ; B ) At Olduvai Gorge, East Africa, severalaustralopithecinesandgay, such asAustralopithecus Boisei( sometimesParanthropus Boisei) andHomosexual Habilis( big ) may hold coexisted ( Leakey 1994, 24-27, 29 ) .Australopithecus Boiseiis distinguished by outstanding sagittal crests on the top and dorsum of the skull and a long, wide and rather level ‘dished’ face with big grinders ( Wood 1992, 236 ) .Homosexual Habilis( big ) besides has a big level face with a little forehead ridge, though without the broad, dished’ visual aspect and crests ofAustralopithecus Boisei( Stringer 1992, 242 & A ; 251 ) . It besides had a robust jaw and big narrow grinders. The robust jaws and big grinders of bothAustralopithecus BoiseiandHomosexual Habilissuggest that the diets of both were chiefly vegetable. It is possible that earlyHomosexual Habilis, a tool shaper, besides hunted or scavenged for meat. Cut Markss from tools found on carnal castanetss from Olduvai show that meat was being cut from the bone bygayaround 1.8 million old ages ago ( Potts 1992, 331 ) . However, the tools from the earlier Oldowan industry can non steadfastly be associated with either genus Australopithecus orgay, though Leakey favours the latter because of the ulterior association ( 1994, 41 ) . Stanford cautions that we remember that even one species may expose a assortment of behaviors ( 2001, 25 ) . 5. ( a, B & A ; degree Celsiuss ) The earliest illustrations of Acheulean engineering day of the month to 1.5/4 million old ages ago and are associated withHomo ErectusLeakey 1994, 93 ; Gowlett 1992b, 353 ) . The handaxe ( or biface ) is associated with the development of a long axis linked to a ‘walnut’ form and illustrations may be symmetrical through a different planes and subdivisions ( Gowlett 1992a, 343 ) . Apart from usage as the eponymic handaxe, Acheulean tools were used as choppers and choices – some twelve implements have been identified ( Gowlett 1992b, 354 ; Leakey 1994, 93 ) . In eastern and south Asia discoveries ofHomo Erectushold non yielded Acheulean tools, perchance due to the presence of splintered bamboo rendering rock engineering redundant ( Gowlett 1992b, 351 ) . Besides, we might anticipate variableness in behavior over a broad, or even rather narrow, geographic country ( Stanford 2001, 25 ) . 6. ( a, B & A ; degree Celsiuss ) The Clovis people could hold reached America, possibly via a land span, as portion of a series of three migrations or motions of population from northern Asia, suggested by a assortment of grounds from linguistics, tooth analysis and genetic sciences ( Renfrew & A ; Bahn 1996, 438 ) . Dates for the motions are debatable and vary from up to 42,000-21,000 old ages ago for the earliest, 20,000 old ages ago for the 2nd and 16,000-5000 old ages ago for the last pre-Columbian motion. Martin had suggested they were the first civilization to come in the Americas ( 1973 ) . Evidence from sites such as Murray Springs, Arizona, reveal Clovis civilization artifacts association with macrofauna that subsequently became nonextant ( Haynes 1984 ) . A assortment of tools characterise the Clovis civilization, in peculiar bifacially worked and fluted missile points ( Gowlett 1992b, 359 ) . Such tools are characteristically those of huntsmans. Section 2 7. ( a, B & A ; degree Celsiuss ) Table 1. Showing Relative day of the months, encephalon sizes and encephalon construction of assorted species of hominid and hominoid ( after Deacon 1992, 116-7 ; Stringer 1992, 251 ; Wood 1992, 236 ) .SpeciessDates ( approximative old ages ago )Brain size ( cm3 )Brain constructionProconsul23-15 millionN/AN/AAustralopithecus Afarensis4-2.5 million400-500Broca’s country non presentHomosexual Habilis ( big )2.4-1.6 million600-800Broca’s country nowadaysHomo Erectus1.8-0.3 million750-1250Broca’s country nowadaysHomosexual Sapiens Neanderthalensis150,000-30,0001200-1750Broca’s country nowadaysHomosexual Sapiens ( early modern )130,000-60,0001200-1700Broca’s country nowadaysChimpanzeePresent400Area homologous to Broca’s countryTable 1 shows that early hominoids such asAustralopithecus Afarensishad comparable and somewhat larger encephalons than modern Pan troglodytess ( 400-500cm3 ) , although Broca’s linguistic communication country seems non to hold been present. Broca’s country was present in the larger encephalons ( 600-800cm3 ) ofHomosexual Habilis( big ) and in subsequentlygayspecies up to and includingmodern Homo Sapiens Sapiens. The encephalon size ofgayspecies has increased over clip, top outing at thatof Homo Sapiens Neanderthalensisat 1200-1750cm3, similar to that ofHomosexual Sapiens Sapienswith a scope of 1200-1700cm3. From the informations tabled above, it is non possible to reason that encephalization was a cardinal event in human development although worlds are without uncertainty the most encephalized species on Earth with a encephalon three times bigger than that of a similar sized ape ( Deacon 1992, 116 ; Curtis et Al 2001, 167 ) . The relationship between intelligence and encephalon size is non simple and the presence of Broca’s country does non turn out linguistic communication usage. Chimpanzees are sociable, learn and Teach, usage tools and show complex behavior, even capable of being trained in sign-language yet their encephalons are relatively little. Worlds besides display great assortment in their behavior and it is non ever clear that they are better adapted to life than less encephalized species, which calls into inquiry the nature and cogency of such comparings. Besides really important are the recent finds on Flores, which suggest that a tool and fire utilizinggayspecies we ighing merely 55 lbs and with a encephalon three times smaller than modern worlds evolved fromHomo Erectus( Morwood et al. 2005 ) . Section 3 8. ( a, B, degree Celsius & A ; vitamin D ) Multiregionalists, such as Wolpoff and Thorne have observed continuity, despite spreads, fromHomo Erectusin Java to modern Aboriginal Australians ( Curtis et al. 2001, 198 ) . The SangiranHomo Erectuswas dated at 700,000 old ages old, the skulls from Ngandong to between 400,000-100,000 old ages old and the Australian Mungo people to 24,000 old ages old. Wolpoff and Thorne have observed anatomical continuity in the cranial characteristics, known as the ‘mark of ancient Java’ . The NgandongHomo Erectusbraincases have been redated from 400,000-100,000 to 50,000-30,000 old ages old by negatron spin resonance ( ESR ) dating and uranium series dating ( U-series dating ) ( Curtis et al. 2001, 221 ) . Dates achieved by gamma beam dating have non been published. The Mungo remains have been diversely dated, originally at 24,000 old ages old so to about 62,000 in 1999, and most late utilizing optically exciting luminescence, both the Mungo Lady and Man were redated once more to 40,000 old ages old ( Bowler et al. 2003 ) . The new day of the months for the Ngandong braincase and the Mungo people, if right, suggest thatHomosexual SapiensandHomo Erectuscoexisted in south east Asia. While ab initio an uncomfortable decision for many, the assorted dating techniques do look to confirm one another, and recent discoveries ofHomo Floresiensismay supply further cogent evidence of diverseness. The redating of the Mungo people has led to the proposal that modernHomosexual Sapiensdispersed eastward from Africa, before come ining Europe, therefore retaining the ‘Out of Africa’ place ( Gore 2000, 97 ) . Thorne, commented that the redating had no impact on multiregionalism, Wolpoff adding that from 2 million old ages ago there was merely one human species ( Curtis et al. 2001, 229 ) . Whatever theoretical attack one has to dispersal, it seems indispensable to recognize the diverseness and coexistence of communities ofHomosexual. Mentions Bowler, J.M. , Johnston, H. , Olley, J. Prescott, J. Roberts, R. Shawcross, W. and Spooner, N. 2003. New ages for human business and climatic alteration at Lake Mungo, Australia.Nature421 ( February ) 837-40.Curtis, G.H. , Swisher III, C.C. and Lewin, R. 2001.Java Man. London: Little, Brown & A ; Co.Deacon, T.W. 1992. The human encephalon. In Jones et Al. ( eds. ) . 1992.The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Human Evolution. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 115-123.Gore, R. 2000. Peoples Like Us.National GeographicVol.198/1 ( July ) , 90-117.Gowlett, J.A.J. 1992a. Early human mental abilities. In Jones et Al. ( eds. ) . 1992.The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Human Evolution. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 341-345.Gowlett, J.A.J. 1992b. Tools – the Palaeolithic record. In Jones et Al. ( eds. ) . 1992.The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Human Evolution. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 350-360.Haynes, C.V. 1984. Stratigraphy and Late Pleistocene Extinction in the United States . In Martin, P.S. and Klein, R.G. ( eds. ) . 1984.Quaternate Extinctions. Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 345-353.Jones, S. , Martin, R. and Pilbeam, D. ( explosive detection systems. ) 1992.The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Human Evolution. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Leakey, R. 1994.The Origin of Humankind. London: Weidenfeld & A ; Nicolson.Martin, P.S. 1973. The find of America.Science179, 969-74.Morwood, M. , Sutikna, T. and Roberts, R. 2005. World of the Small People.National GeographicVol.207/4 ( April ) , 2-15.Potts, R. 1992. The hominian manner of life. In Jones et Al. ( eds. ) . 1992.The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Human Evolution. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 325-334.Renfrew, C. and Bahn, P. 1996.Archaeology, Theories, Methods and Practice. London: Thames & A ; Hudson.Stanford, C.B. 2001.The Hunting Apes. Princeton: Princeton University Press.Stringer, C.B. 1992. Development of australopithecines. In Jones et Al. ( eds. ) . 1992.The Cambridge Encyclopedi a of Human Evolution. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 241-254.Wood, B.A. 1992. Development of early worlds. In Jones et Al. ( eds. ) . 1992.The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Human Evolution. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 231-240.

Francis Bacon and Rene Descartes Essay

The Discourse on the Method of Rightly Conducting One’s Reason and of Seeking Truth in the Sciences is one of the most influential works in the history of modern philosophy, and important to the evolution of natural sciences. In this work, Descartes tackles the problem of skepticism. Descartes modified it to account for a truth he found to be incontrovertible. Descartes started his line of reasoning by doubting everything, so as to assess the world from a fresh perspective, clear of any preconceived notions. Whereas Francis Bacon’s Scientific Method wanted to replace the deductive reasoning by inductive reasoning. The important concept in this reformed thought is about discovering truth rather than establishing the beliefs by deduction. The scientific and philosophical contributions that Rene Descartes and Francis Bacon helped form a single concept of the scientific method. The scientific method was a new way to reach a conclusion about anything and refers to a way one should acquire knowledge, or investigate a phenomenon or to correct and refine previous unproven knowledge. It is a five step method; the inquiry, initial hypothesis, action of investigation, results and conclusion. Rene Descartes was born in France at La Haye near the city of Tours in 1596. He went to school at the age of eight at La Fleche in France; he was a student there until the age of sixteen, in which he studied scholastic philosophy and mathematics. Later he was educated at the Jesuit College of La Fleche between 1606 and 1614. When he was nineteen he left Jesuit College for the University of Poitiers, where he studied law for two years and graduated in the year 1616. He got a degree in law but developed a passion for mathematics because he saw it as one field where absolute certainty could be found. Descartes also saw it as a means for achieving greater progress in both science and philosophy. He later claimed that his education gave him little of substance and that only mathematics had given him certain knowledge. In 1618-1621 he enlisted in the army, military service was tradition in his family, and when the Thirty Years’ War began he was encouraged to volunteer under the Count de Bucquoy in the Bavarian army. In his leisure time he studied mathematics, having been influenced by the Dutch mathematician and scientist Beeckman. He left the army in 1621 he dedicated his life to the study of science and philosophy (1621-1649). During which time he published his most influential works, by 1650 his health was depleting and he passed away in Stockholm of pneumonia at the age of fifty-three. Francis Bacon was born in London. He entered Trinity College, Cambridge, at the age of twelve. He studied law and became a barrister in 1582; two years later he took a seat in the House of Commons. Bacon’s opposition, in 1584, to Queen Elizabeth’s tax program delayed his political advancement. While in the earlier days he supported the Earl of Essex, Bacon, in 1601, was involved in his prosecution. With the accession of James I (1566-1625) and thereafter, a number of honours were bestowed on Bacon: he was knighted in 1603, made Solicitor General in 1604, Attorney General in 1613, and Lord Chancellor in 1618. He was an English lawyer, statesman, essayist, historian, intellectual reformer, philosopher, and supporter of modern science. Early in his career he claimed â€Å"all knowledge as his province† and afterwards dedicated himself to an extensive revaluation and re-structuring of traditional learning. To take the place of the established tradition a miscellany of Scholasticism, humanism, and natural magic, he proposed an entirely new system based on empirical and inductive principles and the active development of new arts and inventions, a system whose ultimate goal would be the production of practical knowledge. Descartes and Bacon were influenced by 16th century society. What does the situation look like in Europe in terms of science and philosophy in 1500’s? Scholasticism is over in terms of being a philosophical point of view. It is still practiced in some universities and will be practiced up until the 18th century at least. Three fundamental changes have occurred during the Renaissance; Aristotle portrayed the understanding of the universe, Galen described the importance of medicine and to understand astronomy Ptolemy described it. In 200 years there has been a revolutionary change, Rene Descartes and Isaac Newton have replaced Ptolemy in astronomy. Galileo has replaced Aristotle in physics. Harvey has replaced Galen in medicine. The three ancient authorities have been over thrown. In Rene Descartes’ Discourse on Method he expresses his disappointment with traditional philosophy and with the limitations of theology; only logic, geometry and algebra hold his respect, because of the utter certainty which they can offer us. Unfortunately, because they depend on hypotheses, they cannot tell us what is real, i. . what the world is really like. Therefore Descartes suggests a method of thought combining the consistency of mathematics but based on natural truths about what is real, basic knowledge which could not be wrong (like the axioms of geometry). He calls into question everything that he thinks he has learned through his senses but rests his entire system on the one truth that he cannot doubt, namely, the reality of his own mind and the radical difference between the mental and the physical aspects of the world. What is crucial to Descartes is reason because he wants to establish a foundation for the sciences. Reason is a constant for Descartes; he is given credit as starting the modern rationalist school. Rationalists were people who philosophers who felt that every human being possessed ideas about the world that each of us was born with and they were the bases of much of our knowledge. Descartes does tend to rationalism. â€Å"Thus our convictions result from custom and example very much more than from any knowledge that is certain. Look at how we operate as human beings in society. Our beliefs and convictions come from tradition, we believe certain things and act in certain ways, and we are interested in certain things because of the traditions that preceded us. Descartes apposes this to knowledge that is certain, in other words basically he does not have much time for tradition. Beliefs and convictions are not knowledge. Knowledge is something that you can be certain of. When Descartes says knowledge, he means no possibility of doubt at all. Absolute certainty is knowledge and this is what he wanted for his new foundation for the sciences. Certainty is everything, not gut certainty, gut feeling is purely psychological subject feeling. Feeling is not included when referring to certainty, object certainty is certainty is there no matter what your feeling is it is a state of affairs that is there if you like it or not and you know it in such a way that you cannot possibly be mistaken and you cannot possibly doubt it. Descartes criticizes tradition; he says we can’t rely on tradition for true knowledge. In terms of the contemporary world you cannot rely on the point of view of the masses of people when we are trying to deal with or discover new knowledge that might be somewhat difficult to get a handle on. Descartes only relies on one thing mainly and that is his reason. â€Å"I decided to go slowly and to be so careful about everything that, even if I made very little progress, I would at least prevent myself from falling. I did not even wish to begin rejecting completely any of the views that may have slipped among my beliefs previously without having been introduced there by reason. He wants to go slowly and not make mistakes because he is dealing with his own mind and thoughts. When Descartes is considering beliefs he wants only those beliefs that have been checked out by his reason. â€Å"Everything that I accepted as being most true up to now I acquired from the senses or through the senses. However, I have occasionally found that they deceive me, and it is prudent never to trust those who have deceived us, even if only once. † Descartes tries to undermine his beliefs by considering the fact that he remembers that his senses have deceived him before. Descartes’s goal is to suspend judgment about any of his beliefs which are even slightly doubtful. Descartes talks about the three disciplines of mathematics, logic, geometric analysis and algebra. In logic a form of deductive reasoning consisting of a major premise, a minor premise and a conclusion is called a syllogism. Example, Major premise: All men are mortal. Minor premise: Socrates is a man. Conclusion: Therefore Socrates is mortal. The key thing about a syllogism for Descartes is that as an argument form it does not help us learn anything new. Individuals use arguments to establish aspects that are new, that are different from the premises, the example above does not tell an individual something new because all the information is provided within the premises. In deductive logic when all the premises are true and the argument is valid it goes by the rules of logic, than the argument is a sound argument and the truth of the conclusion is guaranteed. Descartes wants a logic that is going to help discover new truths. In the case of syllogisms and most of its other rules are more useful for explaining to someone else what one already knows or even, for speaking uncritically about things that one does not know, rather than for learning them. † Descartes says this logic does not help with discovering a new scientific method and he cannot rely on logic alone to generate a new method. Regarding geometry â€Å"is always so tied to the discussion of shapes that it cannot exercise the understanding without greatly tiring the im agination. † He is happy with the understanding, which for Descartes also means reason. Descartes does not agree with imagination because imagination can get tired while it is conjuring up various images. He is pro understanding and reason but is suspicious of imagination and unfortunately geometry is reliant on imagination and therefore he cannot rely completely on geometry for his new method. Algebra is so constrained by certain rules and symbols that it has become a confused art that hinders the mind rather than a science that assists it. Descartes decides to do it by himself and develop a method on his own. He assembles four basic rules for his method and they also reflect what goes on in basic science in modern day. The first was never to accept anything as true if I did not clearly that it was so. † No subjection bias and jumping to conclusions. Jumping to conclusions is one of the criticisms he makes of some forms of reasoning and jumping to conclusions simply means on the bases of very little data I make a conclusion beyond that data. A modern day example supporting Descartes first rule is to go buy a new car, take the car out for a test drive and drive it for about 10- 20 minutes than decide to buy the car because it is fabulous and it will never have any problems. Descartes says this is hasty reasoning that is drawing a hasty conclusion, in other words you haven’t driven that car enough to make that kind of conclusion about the quality of that car. Analytical is the second rule, the problem that you are dealing with as a scientist. The first thing you do when you confront a problem is to break it down into its parts. In other words what are the elements of this problem? Descartes is saying the best way to solve a problem is to first break it down to analyze it into its smallest sub parts and then attack it. The third rule was reconstruction/reduction. Reduction refers to subject matter, â€Å"to guide my thoughts in an orderly way by beginning with the objects that are the simplest and easiest to know. † In other words you break down the objects to their simplest part which is the reduction and then you reconstruct from the parts of the object. When you are reconstructing you are looking for the internal order of the subject matter. Comprehensiveness is the fourth rule for Descartes’ method. Means to make sure nothing relevant has been left out of consideration. That you have dealt with the entire object and all of its parts and not just some of the object and some of its parts. The bases of his method is that if all inferences that if they result from an argument that has all true premises and follows the rules of logic than the conclusion is necessarily true. This is the possibility of the perfect argument, if one every time someone criticizes you was able to devise an argument that had all true premises and followed the rules of logic one could be assured that the truth of your conclusion every time out was true. At the beginning of his adult life, Francis Bacon aimed at a revision of natural philosophy; he wanted a new system which emphasized empirical methods and laying the foundation for applied science. The apparent difference between Descartes and Bacon, Descartes emphasis was on deduction and reason; Bacon is caught more by empiricisms which mean he believes all our knowledge comes from sense experience. In 1603 Bacon writes the interpretation of nature. Here he opposes Aristotelian thought and purposes a new outline for a new method. Like Descartes he has no use for tradition, for the philosophical tradition and the scientific tradition he has no use for it what so ever. Bacon is saying we need a new start.

Genetic Variation Definition, Causes, and Examples

Genetic variation can be defined as the genetic makeup of organisms within a population change. Genes are inherited segments of DNA that contain codes for the production of proteins. Genes exists in alternate versions, or alleles that determine distinct traits that can be passed on from parents to offspring.   Key Takeaways: Genetic Variation Genetic variation refers to differences in the genetic makeup of individuals in a population.Genetic variation is necessary in natural selection. In natural selection, organisms with environmentally selected traits are better able to adapt to the environment and pass on their genes.Major causes of variation include mutations, gene flow, and sexual reproduction.DNA mutation causes genetic variation by altering the genes of individuals in a population.Gene flow leads to genetic variation as new individuals with different gene combinations migrate into a population.Sexual reproduction promotes variable gene combinations in a population leading to genetic variation.Examples of genetic variation include eye color, blood type, camouflage in animals, and leaf modification in plants. Genetic variation is important to the processes of natural selection and biological evolution. The genetic variations that arise in a population happen by chance, but the process of natural selection does not. Natural selection is the result of the interactions between genetic variations in a population and the environment. The environment determines which genetic variations are more favorable or better suited for survival. As organisms with these environmentally selected genes survive and reproduce, more favorable traits are passed on to the population as a whole. Genetic Variation Causes Computer graphic illustration depicting a point mutation. A point mutation is a genetic mutation where a single nucleotide base is changed.   Alfred Pasieka/Science Photo Library/Getty Images Genetic variation occurs mainly through DNA mutation, gene flow (movement of genes from one population to another), and sexual reproduction. Due to the fact that environments are unstable, populations that are genetically variable will be able to adapt to changing situations better than those that do not contain genetic variation. DNA Mutation: A mutation is a change in the DNA sequence. These variations in gene sequences can sometimes be advantageous to an organism. Most mutations that result in genetic variation produce traits that  confer neither an advantage or disadvantage. Mutations lead to genetic variation by altering genes and alleles in a population. They may impact an individual gene or an entire chromosome. Although mutations change an organisms genotype (genetic makeup), they may not necessarily change an organisms phenotype.Gene Flow: Also called gene migration, gene flow introduces new genes into a population as organisms migrate into a new environment. New gene combinations are made possible by the availability of new alleles in the gene pool. Gene frequencies may also be altered by emigration of organisms out of a population. Immigration of new organisms into a population may help organisms better adapt to changing environmental conditions. Migration of organisms out of a population could re sult in a lack of genetic diversity.Sexual Reproduction: Sexual reproduction promotes genetic variation by producing different gene combinations. Meiosis is the process by which sex cells or gametes are created. Genetic variation occurs as alleles in gametes are separated and randomly united upon fertilization. The genetic recombination of genes also occurs during crossing over or the swapping of gene segments in homologous chromosomes during meiosis. Genetic Variation Examples A true albino squirrel photographed eating a nut in Companies Garden in Cape Town, Western Cape Province, South Africa.   David G Richardson/Getty Images Favorable genetic traits in a population are determined by the environment. Organisms that are better able to adapt to their environment survive to pass on their genes and favorable traits. Sexual selection is commonly seen in nature as animals tend to select mates that have traits that are favorable. As females mate more often with males considered to have more favorable traits, these genes occur more often in a population over time. A persons skin color, hair color, dimples, freckles, and blood type are all examples of genetic variations that can occur in a human population. Examples of genetic variation in plants include the modified leaves of carnivorous plants and the development of flowers that resemble insects to lure plant pollinators. Gene variation in plants often occurs as the result of gene flow. Pollen is dispersed from one area to another by the wind or by pollinators over great distances. Examples of genetic variation in animals include albinism, cheetahs with stripes, snakes that fly, animals that play dead, and animals that mimic leaves. These variations enable the animals to better adapt to conditions in their environments.